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Lysosomal Disorders

Oncology

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Brain metastases from renal cell carcinoma (RCC) cause significant morbidity and mortality. More effective treatment approaches are needed. Traditionally, whole-brain radiotherapy has been used for palliation. With advances in radiation oncology, stereotactic radiosurgery and hypofractionated stereotactic radiotherapy have been utilized for RCC brain metastases, producing excellent outcomes. This review details the role of radiotherapy in various subgroups of patients with RCC brain metastases as well as the associated toxicities and outcomes. Newer radiosensitizers (eg, motexafin gadolinium [Xcytrin]) and chemotherapeutic agents (eg, temozolomide [Temodar]) used in combination with radiotherapy will also be discussed.

Radiation Therapy in the Management of Brain Metastases From Renal Cell Carcinoma

Patient use of the 2 FDA-approved gene therapy products for sickle cell disease (SCD), Vertex Pharmaceuticals' and CRISPR Therapeutics’ 

 (exa-cel; marketed as Casgevy) and bluebird bio’s 

 (lovo-cel; marketed as Lyfgenia), in the commercial setting has remained low.

Despite the approval of both gene therapy products by the FDA occurring simultaneously on December 8, 2023, only 4 patients have begun treatment with lovo-cel in the commercial setting, while 20 patients are reported to have begun treatment with exa-cel. Alongside the number for lovo-cel, bluebird also pointed out that this year 4 patients have started on elivaldogene autotemcel (Lenti-D, Skysona), its marketed gene therapy for cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy, and 19 patients have started on betibeglogene autotemcel (beti-cel, Zynteglo), its marketed gene therapy for transfusion dependent thalassemia (TDT). As such, bluebird bio has reported 23 total cell collections for SCD/TDT gene therapies lovo-cel and beti-cel. The company expects that patient uptake of the 3 aforementioned therapies will continue to increase, with 85 patient starts expected across the therapies by the end of the year.

“We are seeing clear evidence that our commercial launch is accelerating, with over 20 cell collections completed in SCD and TDT to date in 2024, and more than 40 additional patients already scheduled to initiate the treatment journey for a bluebird gene therapy by the end of this year,” Andrew Obenshain, MBA, the chief executive officer of bluebird bio, said in a statement.

 “We are further encouraged by the commitment to provide patient access across both commercial and government payers, most recently conveyed through multiple positive Medicaid decisions and the growing number of published coverage policies for Lyfgenia, and we expect approximately 85 patient starts across our portfolio this year.”

Notably, unlike lovo-cel, exa-cel is indicated for both SCD and TDT. Since Vertex has not clarified the breakdown of patients treated with exa-cel for each disease, direct comparison is difficult. The approval in TDT came slightly later, with 

“Vertex delivered another strong quarter of revenue growth coupled with outstanding execution across the business, and we are increasing our full year product revenue guidance,” Reshma Kewalramani, MD, the chief executive officer and president of Vertex, said in an August 1, 2024, statement.

 “Our focus for the second half of the year remains on commercial execution in cystic fibrosis and the global launch of Casgevy, readying for the upcoming potential launches of the vanzacaftor triple in cystic fibrosis and suzetrigine in acute pain, while rapidly advancing a robust pipeline that is poised to deliver value for patients and shareholders for the long term.”

Beyond gene therapy for SCD and TDT, uptake of 

hemophilia gene therapies has also been slow

. Although BioMarin’s valoctocogene roxaparvovec (val-rox, marketed as Roctavian) was approved in June 2023, the first patient outside of clinical trials 

 until December 2023, at the Center for Inherited Bleeding Disorders (CIBD) in California.

 Just this month, BioMarin announced that 

 with regard to val-rox, with the company now mainly focusing on distributing the gene therapy in the United States, Germany, and Italy, the 3 countries in which it has been approved for use by relevant regulatory authorities and is reimbursed.

 UniQure and CSL Behring’s hemophilia B gene therapy, etranacogene dezaparvovec (marketed as Hemgenix), which was 

, has also been slow to be embraced by patients.

“We haven't seen a lot of patients dosed yet,” Steven W. Pipe, MD, a professor of pediatric hematology/oncology at CS Mott Children’s Hospital, told 

 regarding Hemegenix earlier in 2024. “And I don't think that’s related to either the enthusiasm of the clinicians or the patients, but really just the mechanics of how to deliver this in the clinical space, as opposed to the research trials... We've seen that a lot of the hemophilia treatment center sites have got their components together, their infrastructure and personnel so that they can actually start delivering this in the commercial setting. And so, I'm really looking forward to seeing this making a difference in patients' lives in a real world setting.”

REFERENCES
1. bluebird bio reports second quarter 2024 results and highlights operational progress and 2024 guidance. News release. bluebird bio, Inc. August 14, 2024. Accessed August 15, 2024. https://investor.bluebirdbio.com/news-releases/news-release-details/bluebird-bio-reports-second-quarter-2024-results-and-highlights
2. Stock dive for bluebird as sickle cell gene therapy lags behind Vertex rival. News article. Anna Bratulic. FirstWord Pharma. August 14, 2024. Accessed August 15, 2024. https://firstwordpharma.com/story/5885598
3. Vertex announces US FDA approval of CASGEVY™ (exagamglogene autotemcel) for the Treatment of Transfusion-Dependent Beta Thalassemia. News release. Vertex Pharmaceuticals Incorporated. January 16, 2024. Accessed August 15, 2024. https://news.vrtx.com/news-releases/news-release-details/vertex-announces-us-fda-approval-casgevytm-exagamglogene
4. Vertex reports second quarter 2024 financial results. News release. Vertex Pharmaceuticals Incorporated. August 1, 2024. Accessed August 15, 2024. https://investors.vrtx.com/news-releases/news-release-details/vertex-reports-second-quarter-2024-financial-results
5. Center for Inherited Blood Disorders Administers Country's First Gene Therapy Infusion to Treat Hemophilia A. News release. Center for Inherited Blood Disorders. January 11, 2024. Accessed August 15, 2024. https://firstwordpharma.com/story/5817834?from=article
6. BioMarin Announces Updated Strategy for ROCTAVIAN® to Focus on U.S., Germany and Ital. News release. BioMarin Pharmaceutical Inc. August 5, 2024. Accessed August 15, 2024. https://investors.biomarin.com/news/news-details/2024/BioMarin-Announces-Updated-Strategy-for-ROCTAVIAN-to-Focus-on-U.S.-Germany-and-Italy/default.aspx
7. FDA approves first gene therapy to treat adults with hemophilia B. News release. FDA. November 22, 2022. Accessed August 15, 2024. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-gene-therapy-treat-adults-hemophilia-b

bluebird bio has reported 23 total cell collections for SCD and TDT gene therapies lovo-cel and beti-cel and Vertex Pharmaceuticals has reported approximately 20 cell collections for SCD/TDT gene therapy exa-cel.

Topic

Uptake of Nononcology Gene Therapy Remains Slow in Hematology

(arsa-cel, OTL-200; Orchard Therapeutics) is a gene-edited cell therapy designed to restore arylsulfatase A (ARSA) enzyme activity in children with presymptomatic (PS) late infantile (LI), PS early juvenile (EJ), or early symptomatic (ES) early juvenile (EJ) metachromatic leukodystrophy (MLD).

 arsa-cel under the name Lenmeldy to become the first gene therapy for children with MLD to be approved in the United States, following its approval in the European Union, UK, Iceland, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Norway under the name Libmeldy.1 Orchard Therapeutics previously announced that the FDA had accepted the biologics license application with 

The FDA’s decision was based on data from patients treated with arsa-cel across 2 clinical trials (NCT01560182; NCT03392987) and additional patients treated in expanded access frameworks. These patients had follow-up times ranging from 0.64 years to 12.19 years (median, 6.76).

“Metachromatic leukodystrophy, is a really important unmet need in the pediatric community. So, this is a disease that's rare, it affects about one in 40,000 children. And up until recently, we have had no curative treatment option for this,” Madeleine Powys, MBBS, Staff Specialist, Blood Transplant and Cell Therapies, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, told 

. "Autologous hematopoietic stem cell gene therapy has offered really promising new hope for these patients.”

Madeleine Powys, MBBS, on Lessons Learned With Libmeldy

Arsa-cel is currently being evaluated in 6 participants enrolled in a phase 3 clinical trial (NCT04283227). The trial enrolled participants with documented biochemical and molecular diagnosis of MLD, including low ARSA activity and identification of 2 disease-causing ARSA alleles, with novel mutations analyzed and excluded as common polymorphisms, alongside specific genotype criteria. Symptomatic individuals must have onset between 7 and 17 years of age, or pre-symptomatic participants must be less than 17 years at treatment initiation and have a sibling with late-juvenile MLD variant, along with normal cognitive and motor function, with seizures or disease signs revealed by instrumental evaluations not being exclusionary if present alone, and compliance with contraceptive use requirements if applicable, with signed informed consent or assent provided by the participant or guardian.

The exclusion criteria for the study include documented HIV infection, malignant neoplasia except localized skin cancer or hereditary cancer syndrome unless successfully treated with no recurrence, myelodysplasia, acute myeloid leukemia, or serious hematological disorders, current enrollment in other interventional trials, prior allogeneic HSPC gene therapy or gene therapy, symptomatic herpes zoster unresponsive to treatment, active tuberculosis unless on antibiotic prophylaxis, acute or chronic stable Hepatitis B or positive Hepatitis C RNA test result unless specific conditions are met, end-organ dysfunction, severe infection not responsive to treatment, or other severe diseases deemed inappropriate for the study by the investigator. Additionally, testing for other transmissible infectious agents may be considered, and participants with elevated liver enzymes or bilirubin may be included after discussion and agreement with the medical monitor.

The study’s primary measures involve assessing the OTpbmsL-200 Arylsulfatase A (ARSA) activity levels in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and the neuronal metabolite ratio of N-acetyl-aspartate (NAA) to creatine (Cr) in white matter brain regions, both evaluated at 24 months post-treatment, with changes from baseline being monitored.

Secondary measures involve evaluating changes in ARSA activity levels in CSF and neuronal metabolite ratio in white matter brain regions, assessing ARSA levels in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and specific subtypes, comparing neuronal metabolite ratios to baseline, siblings, or untreated controls, determining engraftment through lentiviral positivity in bone marrow progenitors and vector copy number in BM cells and PBMCs, assessing severity scale for brain MRI, neurocognitive function, full neurological clinical examination, gross motor function classification, nerve conduction velocity, Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale, and monitoring conditioning regimen and non-conditioning-related adverse events up to 8 years post gene therapy, along with hematological reconstitution, infusion-related reactions, immune response, abnormal clonal proliferation, replication-competent lentivirus, and integration site analysis findings over time.

, held February 4-9, in San Diego, California, by Vera Gallo, MD, staff pediatrician, San Raffaele Telethon Institute for Gene Therapy. The data were from 5 patients with LJ MLD that had follow-up ranging from 3.2 to 21.3 months (median, 17.3). At the time of treatment, 3 patients had PS MLD and 2 had ES MLD. The group included a 2.7-year-old girl (PS), a 9.9-year-old boy (ES), a 15.2-year-old boy (PS), a 6.6-year-old girl (PS), and 10.9-year-old boy (ES) as of the December 2023 cutoff date.

"This represents of course, the proof of principle that gene therapy with ex- vivo lentiviral gene therapy into stem cells can correct a lysosomal storage disorder (LSD)... and could be applicable to other LSDS. So we're working on new diseases to bring this approach of enzyme correction also to other LSDs," investigator Alessandro Aiuti, MD, PhD, deputy director, clinical research, and head, Clinical Research Unit, San Raffaele Telethon Institute for gene therapy, and Group leader, Pathogenesis and therapy, primary immunodeficiencies unit, and full professor, Università Vita Salute San Raffaele, and chief of clinic, Pediatric Immunohematology Unit, San Raffaele, told 

Data from these participants showed that they all had normal hematological reconstitution and engraftment that was consistent with arsa-cel outcomes seen in patients with early-onset MLD who have been treated in other settings. Time to neutrophil engraftment ranged from 26 to 42 days (median, 33) posttreatment and time to platelet engraftment ranged from 25 to 46 days (median, 26) posttreatment. ARSA activity reached supranormal levels in the PBMCs and in CD15+ cells and increased to normal levels in the CSF in 3 patients for whom central nervous system pharmacodynamic efficacy measures were available.At 90 days after administration of arsa-cel transduced bone marrow progenitors made up between 23.81% to 81.25% of bone marrow progenitors. At this time point, the PBMCs showed a median vector copy number (VCN) of 0.49 copies/cell and the CD15+ cells showed a median VCN of 0.82 copies/cell.

In terms of safety, there were no serious adverse events (SAEs) deemed potentially related to arsa-cel. One nonserious AE deemed potentially related to the therapy, a case of erythematous rash, occurred in 1 patient. No SAEs deemed potentially related to the Busulfan conditioning regimen occurred; although cases of febrile neutropenia, cytopenia, and stomatitis were deemed to have potential relation to the regimen. An SAE of upper respiratory tract infection occurred in 1 patient. One patient with prolonged thrombocytopenia who had previously experienced treatment-failure with allogeneic transplant in the form of autologous reconstitution was administered thrombopoietin receptor agonist therapy for 5 months. No multilineage engraftment of transduced cells or malignancy occurred and there was no indication of clonal expansion or replication competent lentivirus.

1. FDA Approves First Gene Therapy for Children with Metachromatic Leukodystrophy. News release. Orchard Therapeutics. March 18, 2024. Accessed March 18, 2024. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-gene-therapy-children-metachromatic-leukodystroph
2. Orchard Therapeutics announces acceptance of biologics license application for OTL-200 in MLD and receives priority review. News release. Orchard Therapeutics. September 18, 2023. Accessed September 18, 2023. https://ir.orchard-tx.com/news-releases/news-release-details/orchard-therapeutics-announces-acceptance-biologics-license
3. Fumagalli F, Calbi V, De Mattia F, et al. Long-term clinical outcomes of atidarsageneautotemcel (autologous hematopoietic stem cell gene therapy) preserves cognitive and motor development in early-onset metachromatic leukodystrophy with up to 12 years follow-up. Presented at: WORLDSymposium, held February 4-9, in San Diego, California. Poster #92
4. Gallo V, Calbi V, De Mattia F, et al. Lentiviral hematopoietic stem cell gene therapy (atidarsageneautotemcel) for late juvenile metachromatic leukodystrophy (MLD). Presented at: WORLDSymposium, held February 4-9, in San Diego, California. Poster #96

The gene-edited cell therapy has been approved as Lenmeldy by the FDA. 

Phase 3 Trial Seeks to Continue Supporting Arsa-Cel Gene Therapy for MLD 

Sarepta Therapeutics’ delandistrogene moxeparvovec-rokl (marketed as Elevidys), a marketed adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector-based gene therapy for patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), has shown sustained benefit in patients who are ambulatory who were treated in the phase 3 EMBARK clinical trial (NCT05096221; SRP-9001-301), according to new results from part 2 of the study.

Among 59 patients in part 2 who crossed over to receive treatment with Elevidys after having received the placebo in part 1 of the study, a least square means (LSM) improvement of +2.34 points from baseline on the North Star Ambulatory Assessment (NSAA) in comparison to a matched external controlgroup (EC) at 52 weeks posttreatment (

 < .0001). In addition, the patients treated with Elevidys in part 2 also showed an LSM –2.70 seconds improvement on Time to Rise (TTR) (

 < .0001) and an LSM –1.07 seconds improvement on 10-meter walk/run (10MWR) (

= .0001) in comparison to a prespecified, propensity-weighted EC. Sarepta noted that the study remained blinded during the 52 weeks posttreatment period in part 2 and that the cross-over treated patients had an average age of 7.11 years, whereas the patients treated in part 1 of the study had had an average age of 5.98 years.

Sarepta also reported updated 2 year results from the 63 patients who originally received Elevidys in part 1 of EMBARK. At 2 years posttreatment, the patients treated with the gene therapy in EMBARK showed an LSM improvement of +2.88 points on NSAA (

 = .0033), and –1.36 seconds on 10MWR (

 =.0028) in comparison to EC. The company pointed out that an increased difference from 1 year posttreatment to 2 years posttreatment on NSAA, TTR, and 10MWR was observed between patients treated with Elevidys in part 1 and the EC, suggesting a continued widening of the chasm in disease trajectory between patients who received the gene therapy and the natural history course of the disease.

Sarepta also noted that consistent and sustained expression of the microdystrophin encoded by Elevidys was observed in biopsies taken from patients treated in part 1 at 12 weeks posttreatment and 64 weeks posttreatment. With regard to safety, the company stated that no new safety signals have been reported.

“We’re very encouraged to see the results from part 2 of EMBARK as they further elucidate the impact Elevidys has on disease progression in a blinded, controlled study,” Louise Rodino-Klapac, PhD, the executive vice president, head of R&D, and chief scientific officer of Sarapeta, said in a statement.

 “Skeletal muscle MRI demonstrates the importance of preserving muscle, and the functional outcome results show disease stabilization sustained through 2 years after treatment. Over time, we continue to observe a statistically significant difference favoring Elevidys compared to a well-matched external control on NSAA and timed tests. The consistency and totality of evidence supporting a long-term and clinically meaningful treatment benefit with Elevidys continues to grow. We look forward to sharing more details with the clinical community in upcoming scientific forums.”

The FDA originally approved Elevidys in June 2023 for ambulatory patients aged 4 through 5 years with DMD and a confirmed mutation in the 

 gene, excluding patients with any deletion in exon 8 and/or exon 9.

 in June 2024 to include ambulatory patients (via traditional approval) and nonambulatory patients (via accelerated approval) with a confirmed mutation in the 

 gene who are 4 years of age or older and who do not have any deletion in exon 8 or exon 9 in the gene.

, a pediatric neurologist in the Division of Neurology at Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, to get his view on the newly emerging landscape of care for DMD and experience that had been gained with Elevidys at the time. He emphasized the need for more long-term data, especially for older patients, as many patients treated thus far have been on the younger end of the spectrum.

“While the label is broad and is for everyone we don't necessarily have the data to back that up yet and that makes the conversation more nuanced,” Brandsema told 

. “We also aren't sure about the durability of transgene expression. Muscle is a high turnover tissue, and therefore whether this is going to be a lifelong effect is still up in the air; although it does seem, from the early boys treated that there is a measurable difference in their trajectory years after the dose, up to 5 or 6 years at this point now.”

REFERENCES
1. Sarepta Therapeutics Announces Results from Part 2 of the EMBARK Study Demonstrating Sustained Benefits and Disease Stabilization in Ambulatory Individuals with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Following Treatment with ELEVIDYS. News release. Sarepta Therapeutics, Inc. January 27, 2025. Accessed January 29, 2025. https://investorrelations.sarepta.com/news-releases/news-release-details/sarepta-therapeutics-announces-results-part-2-embark-study?_ga=2.44245095.2103940291.1738162169-1590731373.1738162169
2. Sarepta Therapeutics Announces FDA Approval of ELEVIDYS, the First Gene Therapy to Treat Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. News release. Sarepta Therapeutics. June 22, 2023. Accessed January 29, 2025. https://investorrelations.sarepta.com/news-releases/news-release-details/sarepta-therapeutics-announces-fda-approval-elevidys-first-gene
3. Sarepta Therapeutics Announces Expanded US FDA Approval of ELEVIDYS to Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Patients Ages 4 and Above. News release. Sarepta Therapeutics, Inc. June 20, 2024. Accessed January 29, 2025. https://investorrelations.sarepta.com/news-releases/news-release-details/sarepta-therapeutics-announces-us-fda-acceptance-efficacy?_ga=2.242068545.254033713.1708093077-1826905377.1708093076


With regard to safety, the company stated that no new safety signals have been reported.

Sarepta’s DMD Gene Therapy Elevidys Shows Sustained Benefit in Updated Phase 3 Data

In Episode 1 of ImmunoLogic, Stephen J. Schuster, MD, discussed the potential of treating lymphoma without chemotherapy.

ImmunoLogic, Episode 1: "Chemo-Free Lymphoma? Seriously?" With Stephen J. Schuster, MD

an assistant professor of microbiology and the director of the Fraietta Lab at the University of Pennsylvania! Fraietta is joined by cohost 

, a clinical fellow in oncology (MSTR Program) at the University of Pennsylvania. Our hope is that this show will become a critical forum for clinicians, translational researchers, and biotech professionals to explore the evolving landscape of immunotherapy. We're seeking to bridge cutting-edge research with practical applications and delve into how immune-based therapies transition from innovative discoveries to transformative patient care solutions

, the director of the Lymphoma Program at Penn Medicine, about the changing role of chemotherapy in lymphoma treatment, and the potential for its elimination. Schuster covered topics including trials for chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy without lymphodepletion, using AI to predict CAR-T treatment outcomes, the importance of T-cell fitness, and the role of persistence in CAR-T success.

 is tailored for an audience fluent in the language of medicine and biotechnology, offering data-driven insights while maintaining accessibility. This podcast is an essential resource for those driving the future of immunotherapy.

Interested in co-hosting an episode or being a guest? Have feedback to share? 

If you'd like to get in touch to talk about the show, contact our editorial director, Matt Hoffman: 

Videos

This is the second part of an interview with David Porter, MD. For the first part, 

The director of cell therapy and transplant at Penn Medicine also summed up his main message regarding the current state of the field in general.

David Porter, MD, on Progress With Cross-Disciplinary Collaboration in Cell Therapy for Autoimmune Disease

“I will say it's been tremendously rewarding at my institution—at University of Pennsylvania—that we've been able to put together a cross disciplinary group with expertise in all these areas who have worked beautifully together. I think that's going to be critical to the success of this field.”

As chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy has made headway into the realm of clinical trials for autoimmune disease, many doctors and other stakeholders in the field are beginning to think about the practical considerations needed for effectively implementing these new therapies. Indeed, even in early clinical trials, a new need for cross-disciplinary collaboration has become clear. As it currently stands, most doctors and other healthcare professionals who have experience working with CAR-T work in oncology, specifically with hematologic malignancies, where CAR-T was first explored and the only discipline in which CAR-T is now a staple of standard of care treatment. These practitioners are experts on administration of CAR-T and management of the unique risks for toxicities that come with the advanced therapeutic. On the other hand, doctors and other healthcare professionals who have expertise in treating autoimmune disease, tend to have comparatively little experience in dealing with CAR-T. As such, when it comes to the clinical application of CAR-T in autoimmune disease, the need for collaboration between these 2 groups—CAR-T experts and disease area experts—has become apparent.

As part of a larger discussion on the learnings from 2024 in cell therapy for autoimmune disease, 

 asked David Porter, MD, the director of cell therapy and transplant at Penn Medicine, about the progress that has been made in fostering collaboration in the field. Porter spoke about the substantial collaboration that has been facilitated at his own institution, and noted that 2024 helped show that such collaboration is possible. Porter also summed up his main message regarding the current state of the field in general, and emphasized that it is an exciting time, but that a lot still remains to be learned regarding cell therapy in autoimmune disease.

Joseph Fraietta, PhD, previews his new podcast, ImmunoLogic

ImmunoLogic Episode 0

an assistant professor of microbiology and the director of the Fraietta Lab at the University of Pennsylvania! Our hope is that this show will become a critical forum for clinicians, translational researchers, and biotech professionals to explore the evolving landscape of immunotherapy. We're seeking to bridge cutting-edge research with practical applications and delve into how immune-based therapies transition from innovative discoveries to transformative patient care solutions.

In this short preview episode, Fraietta outlines the podcast’s mission to scrutinize the critical milestones shaping immunotherapy today and discuss how episodes will analyze the journey from bench to bedside—focusing on the real-world implementation of clinical data and the impact of regulatory achievements on patient outcomes. Topics will include discussions on chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapies, tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte (TIL)-based approaches, antibody-driven treatments, and the latest advances in gene editing technologies such as CRISPR, with a goal of expanding the conversation outside of the field of oncology.

 will be tailored for an audience fluent in the language of medicine and biotechnology, offering data-driven insights while maintaining accessibility. With its first full episode launching in early 2025, this podcast promises to be an essential resource for those driving the future of immunotherapy.

Hosted by Joseph Fraietta, PhD, ImmunoLogic will be tailored for an audience fluent in the language of medicine and biotechnology, offering data-driven insights while maintaining accessibility.

Bin S. Teh, MD

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